H.+Khalid+Assignment+1

=  Gender discrimination in France  =



Gender discrimination is a social problem that is present throughout the world. We live in a society where social injustice and exclusion is based on race, class, gender, ethnicity, and sexuality. The study against gender discrimination is a social movement that mobilized to challenge this social injustice (Taylor 2000). Particularly when looking at the case presented in a state school in France where Muslims were banned from wearing the hijab we see that Muslim women are adamant to oppose social injustices inflicted on them. This essay will examine how gender issues are still present throughout all cultures by reviewing the unjust treatment of Muslim women and their right to wear the hijab in France.


 * Introduction**:

The Hijab (headscarf) is the Arabic term used to describe the attire worn by Muslim women. The literal meaning of Hijab is ‘covering’, however this term also carries a more general connotation of ‘modesty’. The Hijab is a social practice it embraces not only clothing but also values and behavior. Since the Islamic headscarf has become one of the most fiercely disputed items of clothing in the world today, t his paper will examine Muslim women that choose to wear the hijab. This paper will focus on the case of Muslim women in France who are unable to wear the hijab because of the ban placed by the government of the country. This paper will continue by proving that it is due to this ban on the hijab the rights of Muslim women have been taken away. This is a racial and gender issue that has caused Muslim women both in France and world over come together; to demonstrate against the stance taken by the government. By highlighting the case of France this paper will show how Muslim women strengthen their solidarity and carry out social movements to gain their right to wear the hijab – a fundamental part of their faith.



**__The French Ban on the Hijab:__**

Muslim women have launched a Europe-wide campaign to protect their right to wear the headscarf. Further still they are adamant to fight the Islamophobia that has emerged from this ban and for this reason Muslim women till this day are working on the forefront to fight this unjustifiable discrimination. The women realize that they cannot afford to allow any religious intolerance to succeed, as it inevitably escalates into further discrimination.

To understand the French ban on the Hijab the following paragraphs will study a brief history on the topic. In France in 1989, a debate erupted over female students wearing the hijab in public schools. In one instance five girls were banned from coming to school unless they took of their head covering. The school stood strong on its decision and argued that the “scarf was a sign of proselytism and exercised pressure on other Muslim girls who did not wear scarves” (Eickleman & Piscatori, 1996). Since 1905, public schools in France have been secular by law, yet Muslim families continued to argue that their beliefs made the wearing of the Hijab an obligation. After much discussion through out the nation, the Council of State, the country’s highest administrative body, decided that the Hijab could be worn as long as there was no pressure placed on other Muslim girls to follow suit. At that time many French citizens felt that the wearing of the Hijab served as a direct challenge to French national values and so the controversy on the Muslim fabric did not die out (Eickleman & Piscatori, 1996).

In September of 1994 the French Minister of National Education worsened the Hijab debate by creating a strict legislation, that instructed all public schools to ban “distinctly religious clothing” (Eickleman & Piscatori, 1996). The Minister of Education ordered schools to expel female students that wore the hijab. Let it not be forgotten that at this time “the French government took no action against Roman Catholic students wearing a crucifix, Protestant students wearing a cross, Sikh male students wearing a turban, or Jewish male students wearing a yarmulke (skullcap)” (Robinson, 2004). Again the vice-president of the Council of State stepped in and responded that the Minister of Education has no legal authority on state affairs; and this allowed the continuation of Muslim girls wearing the Hijab to school.

Nonetheless, it was on December 17th 2003 that the final stance on the Hijab debate was taken by French President Jacques Chirac when he said that Muslim school girls have been banned from wearing the headscarf in state schools. In a televised speech, President Chirac said, “I consider that the wearing of dress or symbols which conspicuously show religious affiliation should be banned” ( Aldred, 2003). This has become a highly controversial debate solely because Europe's biggest Muslim population lives in France where 6 million Muslims make up 8 percent of the population (Project Hijab, 2004). Further still Muslims world over are frustrated with the Islamophobia that they believe is the underlying reason for the ban. Along with this let us not forget that this Hijab ban emerged in the post-9/11 world where the Muslims as constantly seen as the ‘villain’ and where elite voices across British and European societies have considered Islamophobia to be fair and justified (Allen, 2004). It has been witnessed in the post 9/11 world that violence aggression and changes in attitudes have occurred in all walks of life towards the Muslims including incidents involving negative or discriminatory acts. It is therefore no surprise that visual identities (Hijab = Muslim) have become targets of discrimination because the Hijab is possibly the most visually identifiable religious symbol in contemporary Europe (Allen, 2004). For the above mentioned reason Muslim women are not willing to tolerate racism any more - at any level - any where in the world and have thus chosen to come together in the form of a social movement.
 * __The Activism that Followed__:**

The ban in France set a string of protests not only in Europe but throughout out the world as well. Scores of Muslim women and girls demonstrated outside the French embassies in Beirut and Amman; 300 women protested in Palestine. There were protests in Damascus, Syria, Srinagar, India, Baghdad, Iraq, Alexandria, Cairo, Cairo, Egypt, Gaza, Palestine (Islam Online, 2004). In all these protests there was one underlying theme and that can be summarized aptly by reading one of the posters in the France demonstrations held by a young Muslim girl “What do we want? Women’s rights/human rights” (Protect Hijab, 2004).

In all these instances crowds of women were at the fore front wearing their Hijab with the dedication that their voices should be heard and that they are not stripped of their religious rights and obligations. In this way we see that the Hijab ban in one country has sparked a series of protest globally. This proves that the hijab ban is indeed part of a larger social movements and it also demonstrates what the hijab means to the Muslim people all across the world. Thus, the planned legislation to ban the hijab has drawn a stream of Muslim criticism and activism worldwide (Protect Hijab, 2004).


 * T **he Hijab indeed is an integral part of the Muslim’s women’s lives (those that choose to wear it) and that they have demonstrated this fact by coming out and showing their activism. However, no matter what the opposing side might say we are aware that “as long as group differences exist, group members will be marked as different” and “thus simply unable to fit” (Young, 2001). In this way the question arises of how best to integrate France's 6 million Muslims, particularly since France has been secular by law for more than 100 years now and has decided to keep the church and the state as separate entities.

Barbara Aswad quite aptly states that “ the veil is the most comprehensive and interesting study to date that explores a misunderstood subject involving the lives of more than one billion persons” ( El Guindi, 2002). It is such a personal experience for Muslim women that its value cannot be justly defined. The ban on the Hijab has indeed created an immense social movement not only in France but throughout the world, leading to various forms of activism. Along with this no one can deny that even though the French are secular by nature and even though I do not deny that other religious symbols have also been banned from state schools, I believe that this ban on the hijab has an under lined Islamophobic motive. Some activists have argued that the ban on the Hijab is part and parcel of an all-inclusive strategy to curb the spread of Islam in France and Europe in general (Islam Online, 2004). Further still, rather than celebrating or promoting Muslim women's liberation, positions intolerant of Islamic headscarves reveal a deep and growing misunderstanding between Muslim women and the rest of the world. These negative stereotypes and the false connotations that exist around the Muslims and the Hijab have been present since time (Wiktorowicz, 2003). It has reached a point where Muslims are just not ready to stand on the side lines while they are further created into ‘the other’ (Loomba, 1998). Therefore Islamic feminist and activist strive to rid the stereotypes placed upon them. They work to fight the dominant ideology that they are oppressed; since wearing the hijab gives these women a sense of freedom instead. __**Conclusion:**__ Finally, with regards to social movements in general we are aware that e ven in ideal societies; social movements will not always achieve the institutional changes they advocate. Nevertheless, social movements “will be fertile grounds for translating self-interest into public debate and policies, and will remain important forces for cultural development and change” (Taylor, 2000). The hijab is an extremely important aspect of religion for many Muslim women across the globe. Though I feel that women should not be oppressed into wearing the hijab, the right to wear it is one’s own personal choice that under no circumstances should be denied. The hijab is a choice of free will and the right to practice religion freely is a stance Muslim women are taking. If nothing else the pro-hijab movement has gained worldwide attention to rid the ban. With such a large group of people coming together – like in the case of France - it will be challenging for discriminatory governments to continue racial injustice. The goal of such movements is to listen to the plea of Muslim women who request the right to practice their faith and thus to wear the hijab freely.


 * Work Cited:**

Allen, Christopher. (2004). Justifying Islamophobia: A Post-9/11 Consideration of the European Union and British Contexts. //The American Journal of Islamic Social// //Sciences, 21, 1 – 25//. Retrieved Feb 1, 2009, from ProQuest database.

Ahmed, Leila. (1993). //Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern// //Debate//. Yale University Press: Reissue edition.

Aldred, Jessica. "Chirac Backs Headscarf Ban." __Guardian__. 17 Dec. 2003. 3 Feb. 2009 .

Caner, [|Ergun Mehmet.] (2004). //Voices Behind the Veil: The World of Islam Through the// //Eyes of Women.// Kregel Publications.

El Guindi, Fadwa. (2002). Veil: Modesty, privacy and resistance//. American Library// //Association, 39, 29.// Retrieved Feb 2, 2009, from ProQuest database.

Eickleman, Dale F., & Piscatori, James. (1996). //Muslim Politics//. Princeton University Pres, Princeton, pp. preface-21

Islam Online. (2004). “French Senate Approves Hijab Bill By Majority.” Retrieved on Feb 1, 2009 from [|http://www.islamonline.net/]

Islam Online. (2004). “Hijab Religious Obligation, Not Symbol: Egypt's Mufti.” Retrieved on Feb 1, 2009 from [|http://www.islamonline.net/]

Islam Online. (2004). Hadi Yahmid, “I would go to school bare-headed till the end of this year.” Retrieved on Feb 1, 2009 from [|http://www.islamonline.net/]

Loomba, Ania. (1998). Colonial and Postcolonial Identities. Chapter 2 in Colonialism/Postcolonialism. London-New York: Routledge, pp. 104-173. September 29, 2005

Protect Hijab. (2004). The Assembly for the Protection of the Hijab: Hijab Ban News. Retrieved Feb 2, 2009 from http://www.prohijab.net/

Robinson, B. (2004). France: Attacks on the Freedom of Religious Expression. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. Retrieved Feb 1, 2009 from http://www.religioustolerance.org/rt_franc2.htm

Taylor, Verta. (2000). Mobilizing for change in a social movement society. //Contemporary Sociology, 29, 219–230//. Retrieved Feb 3, 2009, from ProQuest database.

Wiktorowicz, Quintan. (2003). //Islamic Activism: A social movement Theory Approach// Indiana University Press, pp. 1-33

**Images retrieved from:**
http://www.inminds.co.uk/ihrc-french-ban-3667-11jan0.jpg http://www.sisteraishah.com/Events/aishahspeakingatambassy2.jpg http://www.inminds.co.uk/hijab-protest.html